Magnetohydrodynamic formation of support structures for metal manufacturing

ABSTRACT

Devices, systems, and methods are directed to applying magnetohydrodynamic forces to liquid metal to eject liquid metal along a controlled pattern, such as a controlled three-dimensional pattern as part of additive manufacturing of an object. Porosity of one or more predetermined portions of objects fabricated from an accumulation of liquid metal droplets ejected using magnetohydrodynamic force can be controlled to form interfaces between support structures and parts within the object. Higher porosity along the interfaces, as compared to porosity along the support structures and the parts, can be useful for facilitating separation of the parts from the support structures.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation filed under 35 U.S.C. § 111(a) thatclaims priority under 35 U.S.C. § 120 and § 365 (c) to InternationalApplication No. PCT/US17/20800, filed on Mar. 3, 2017, which claims thebenefit under 35 § 119(e) of U.S. Prov. App. No. 62/303,341, filed onMar. 3, 2016, with the entire contents of each of these applicationshereby incorporated herein by reference.

FIELD

The devices, systems and methods described herein relate tomanufacturing, and more specifically to a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD)system for manufacturing with metallic materials.

BACKGROUND

An electric current can be combined with a magnetic field to impart MHDforces on a liquid metal. Such forces can propel the liquid metal toform a metallic object. While MHD forces can be used to form a metallicobject, considerations related to speed, accuracy, control, and materialproperties present challenges for the use of MHD forces for objectformation on a large scale. Accordingly, there remains a need forcommercially viable techniques for metal manufacturing using MHD forces.

SUMMARY

Devices, systems, and methods are directed to applyingmagnetohydrodynamic forces to liquid metal to eject liquid metal along acontrolled pattern, such as a controlled three-dimensional pattern aspart of additive manufacturing of an object. Porosity of one or morepredetermined portions of objects fabricated from an accumulation ofliquid metal droplets ejected using magnetohydrodynamic force can becontrolled to form interfaces between support structures and partswithin the object. Higher porosity along the interfaces, as compared toporosity along the support structures and the parts, can be useful forfacilitating separation of the parts from the support structures.

In one aspect, a method of additive manufacturing disclosed hereinincludes providing a liquid metal in a fluid chamber at least partiallydefined by a housing, the fluid chamber having an inlet region and adischarge region; directing a magnetic field through the housing; movingthe discharge region in a controlled three-dimensional pattern; anddelivering electric current between electrodes at least partiallydefining a firing chamber within the fluid chamber between the inletregion and the discharge region, the electric current intersecting themagnetic field in the liquid metal in the firing chamber to eject theliquid metal from the discharge region; and based on the position of thedischarge region along the controlled three-dimensional pattern,controlling porosity of one or more predetermined portions of anaccumulation of the ejected liquid metal on a build plate or on apreviously deposited layer of metal.

Controlling porosity of the one or more predetermined portions of theaccumulation of the ejected liquid metal may include forming aninterface between a support structure and a three-dimensional object inthe accumulation, the support structure and the three-dimensional objecthaving lower porosity than the interface. The interface, the supportstructure and the three-dimensional object may be formed of the samematerial. The interface may be frangible relative to thethree-dimensional object. The method may include separating thethree-dimensional object from the support structure through applicationof one or more of a compressive force and a shear force to theinterface. Controlling porosity of the one or more predeterminedportions of the accumulation of the ejected liquid metal may includechanging velocity of the liquid metal ejected from the discharge region.Changing the velocity of the liquid metal ejected from the dischargeregion may include changing a magnitude of the electric currentdelivered into the liquid metal in the firing chamber. Deliveringelectric current into the liquid metal in the firing chamber may includepulsing the electric current. Changing the velocity of the liquid metalejected from the discharge region may include changing at least one of amagnitude and a duration of a pulse of the electric current. Controllingporosity of the one or more predetermined portions of the accumulationof the ejected liquid metal may include changing temperature of theliquid metal ejected from the discharge region. Changing the temperatureof the liquid metal ejected from the discharge region may includereducing the temperature of the ejected liquid metal to increaseporosity of a predetermined portion of the accumulation of the ejectedliquid metal on the build plate or on the previously deposited layer ofmetal.

In another aspect, a computer program product disclosed herein includesnon-transitory computer executable code embodied in a non-transitorycomputer readable medium that, when executing on one or more processors,performs the steps of: moving a discharge region of a housing in acontrolled three-dimensional pattern; delivering electric current into aliquid metal in a firing chamber at least partially defined byelectrodes, the delivered electric current intersecting a magnetic fieldin the liquid metal in the firing chamber to eject the liquid metal fromthe discharge region in fluid communication with the firing chamber; andbased on the position of the discharge region along the controlledthree-dimensional pattern, controlling porosity of one or morepredetermined portions of an accumulation of the ejected liquid metal ona substrate or on a previously deposited layer of metal.

Controlling porosity of the one or more predetermined portions of theaccumulation of the ejected liquid metal may include changing velocityof the liquid metal ejected from the discharge region. Changing thevelocity of the liquid metal ejected from the discharge region mayinclude changing a magnitude of the electric current. Deliveringelectric current into the liquid metal in the firing chamber may includepulsing the electric current. Changing the velocity of the liquid metalejected from the discharge region may include changing at least one of amagnitude and a duration of the pulse of the electric current.Controlling porosity of the one or more predetermined portions of theaccumulation of the ejected liquid metal may include changingtemperature of the liquid metal ejected from the discharge region.Changing the temperature of the liquid metal ejected from the dischargeregion may include reducing the temperature of the ejected liquid metalto increase porosity of a predetermined portion of the accumulation ofthe ejected liquid metal on the substrate or on the previously depositedlayer of metal.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The systems and methods described herein are set forth in the appendedclaims. However, for the purpose of explanation, several implementationsare set forth in the following drawings:

FIG. 1 is a block diagram of a three-dimensional printer for use withMHD deposition of metal for manufacturing.

FIG. 2A is an isometric view of a feeder system and a nozzle of thethree-dimensional printer of FIG. 1.

FIG. 2B is a cross-sectional side view of a cross-section of the feedersystem and the nozzle of FIG. 2A.

FIG. 2C is a top view of the nozzle of FIG. 2A.

FIG. 2D is schematic representation generation of MHD force in liquidmetal in the nozzle of FIG. 2A.

FIG. 3 is a flow chart is a flowchart of an exemplary method of printingliquid metal through the application of MHD forces.

FIG. 4 is a flowchart of an exemplary method of controlling electriccurrent between a pulsed current mode and a direct current mode tocontrol a rate of liquid metal ejection through MHD forces.

FIG. 5 is a flowchart of an exemplary method of using MHD forces to forma part having one or more porous features facilitating separation of apart from a support structure of the part.

FIG. 6 is a flowchart of an exemplary method of using MHD force to pullback a meniscus of quiescent liquid metal in a fluid chamber.

FIGS. 7A and 7B is a series of schematic representations comparing aposition of a meniscus of a quiescent liquid metal of a nozzle as apullback force is applied to the meniscus.

FIG. 8 is a flowchart of an exemplary method 800 of using MHD force tobounce a meniscus of a quiescent liquid metal in a discharge region of anozzle.

FIG. 9 is a cross-sectional side view of a nozzle including a filteralong an inlet region of a fluid chamber.

FIG. 10 is a cross-sectional side view of a nozzle including a chimneyalong an inlet region of a fluid chamber.

FIG. 11 is an isometric view of a nozzle including a fan-cooled magnet.

FIG. 12 is an isometric view of a cross-section of a nozzle includingelectrode integrally formed with at least a portion of a housing.

FIG. 13 is a cross-sectional side view of a nozzle including electrodesformed as a lining on a housing.

FIG. 14 is a cross-sectional isometric view of a nozzle including ahousing and a nozzle formed of a combination of materials.

FIG. 15 is a cross-sectional side view of a nozzle include a non-wettingfilm on an outer surface of a housing.

FIG. 16 is a cross-sectional isometric view of a nozzle including neckregions.

FIG. 17 is a cross-sectional isometric view of a nozzle including neckregions, with a cross-section of the housing following the neck regions.

FIG. 18 is a cross-sectional isometric view of a nozzle including neckregions, with portions of the nozzle having different heights.

DESCRIPTION

Embodiments will now be described with reference to the accompanyingfigures. The foregoing may, however, be embodied in many different formsand should not be construed as limited to the illustrated embodimentsset forth herein.

All documents mentioned herein are hereby incorporated by reference intheir entirety. References to items in the singular should be understoodto include items in the plural, and vice versa, unless explicitly statedotherwise or clear from the text. Grammatical conjunctions are intendedto express any and all disjunctive and conjunctive combinations ofconjoined clauses, sentences, words, and the like, unless otherwisestated or clear from the context. Thus, the term “or” should generallybe understood to mean “and/or” and so forth.

Recitation of ranges of values herein are not intended to be limiting,referring instead individually to any and all values falling within therange, unless otherwise indicated herein, and each separate value withinsuch a range is incorporated into the specification as if it wereindividually recited herein. The words “about,” “approximately,” or thelike, when accompanying a numerical value, are to be construed asindicating a deviation as would be appreciated by one of ordinary skillin the art to operate satisfactorily for an intended purpose. Ranges ofvalues and/or numeric values are provided herein as examples only, anddo not constitute a limitation on the scope of the describedembodiments. The use of any and all examples, or exemplary language(“e.g.,” “such as,” or the like) provided herein, is intended merely tobetter illuminate the embodiments and does not pose a limitation on thescope of the embodiments. No language in the specification should beconstrued as indicating any unclaimed element as essential to thepractice of the embodiments.

In the following description, it is understood that terms such as“first,” “second,” “top,” “bottom,” “up,” “down,” and the like, arewords of convenience and are not to be construed as limiting terms.

As used herein, the term “liquid metal” shall be understood to includemetals and metal alloys in liquid form and, additionally oralternatively, includes any fluid containing metals and metal alloys inliquid form, unless otherwise specified or made clear by the context.

Referring now to FIGS. 1-2D, a three-dimensional printer 100 can includea nozzle 102, a feeder system 104, and a robotic system 106. In general,the robotic system 106 can move the nozzle 102 along a controlledpattern within a working volume 108 of a build chamber 110 as the feedersystem 104 moves a solid metal 112 from a metal supply 113 and into thenozzle 102. As described in greater detail below, the solid metal 112can be melted in or adjacent to the nozzle 102 to form a liquid metal112′ and, through a combination of a magnetic field and an electriccurrent acting on the liquid metal 112′ in the nozzle 102,magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) forces can eject the liquid metal 112′ fromthe nozzle 102 in a direction toward a build plate 114 disposed withinthe build chamber 110. Through repeated ejection of the liquid metal112′ as the nozzle 102 moves along the controlled pattern, an object 116(e.g., a two-dimensional object or a three-dimensional object) can beformed. Alternatively, or additionally, the object 116 can be movedunder the nozzle 102 (e.g., as the nozzle 102 remains stationary). Forexample, in instances in which the controlled pattern is athree-dimensional pattern, the liquid metal 112′ can be ejected from thenozzle 102 in successive layers to form the object 116 through additivemanufacturing. Thus, in general, the feeder system 104 can continuously,or substantially continuously, provide build material to the nozzle 102as the nozzle 102 ejects the liquid metal 112′, which can facilitate theuse of the three-dimensional printer 100 in a variety of manufacturingapplications, including high volume manufacturing of metal parts. Asalso described in greater detail below, MHD forces can be controlled inthe nozzle 102 to provide drop-on-demand delivery of the liquid metal112′ at rates ranging from about one liquid metal drop per hour tothousands of liquid metal drops per second and, in certain instances, todeliver a substantially continuous stream of the liquid metal 112′. Sucha wide range of control over droplet flow rate can, additionally oralternatively, facilitate achieving accuracy and speed targetsassociated with commercially viable three-dimensional fabrication.

In general, the liquid metal 112′ can be any one or more of the variousdifferent metals. For example, the liquid metal 112′ can include a metaloffering some resistance to oxidation, which can facilitate operatingthe nozzle 102 in an imperfectly controlled environment within the buildchamber 110. Thus, for example, the liquid metal 112′ can includealuminum or an aluminum alloy. In particular, the liquid metal 112′ caninclude an aluminum casting alloy such as any one or more of those knownin the art and modifications thereof. Additionally, or alternatively,the liquid metal 112′ can include one or more alloys not normally usedfor castings may because, even though solidification may take place insuch alloys, the grain size of the metal deposited on the object 116will be controlled by the size of the droplet ejected from the nozzle102. Additional or alternative examples of metals that can form theliquid metal 112′ include one or more of carbon steels, tools steels,stainless steels, and tin alloys (e.g., solder).

Referring now to FIGS. 1 and 2A-2D, the nozzle can include a housing202, one or more magnets 204, and electrodes 206. The housing 202 candefine at least a portion of a fluid chamber 208 having an inlet region210, a discharge region 212, and recesses 214. The one or more magnets204 can be supported on the housing 202 or otherwise in a fixed positionrelative to the housing 202 with a magnetic field “M” generated by theone or more magnets 204 directed through the housing 202. In particular,the magnetic field can be directed through the housing 202 in adirection intersecting the liquid metal 112′ as the liquid metal 112′moves from the inlet region 210 to the discharge region 212. Also, orinstead, the electrodes 206 can be supported on the housing 202 todefine at least a portion of a firing chamber 216 within the fluidchamber 208, between the inlet region 210 and the discharge region 212.In use, as described in greater detail below, the feeder system 104 canengage the solid metal 112 and, additionally or alternatively, candirect the solid metal 112 into the inlet region 210 of the fluidchamber 208 as the liquid metal 112′ is ejected from the dischargeregion 212 through MHD forces generated using the one or more magnets204 and the electrodes 206.

In certain implementations, an electric power source 118 can be inelectrical communication with the electrodes 206 and can be controlledto produce an electric current “I” flowing between the electrodes 206.In particular, the electric current “I” can intersect the magnetic field“M” in the liquid metal 112′ in the firing chamber 216. It should beunderstood that the result of this intersection is an MHD force (alsoknown as a Lorentz force) on the liquid metal 112′ at the intersectionof the magnetic field “M” and the electric current “I”. Because thedirection of the MHD force obeys the right-hand rule, the one or moremagnets 204 and the electrodes 206 can be oriented relative to oneanother to exert the MHD force on the liquid metal 112′ in a predictabledirection, such as a direction that can move the liquid metal 112′toward the discharge region 212. The MHD force on the liquid metal 112′is of the type known as a body force, as it acts in a distributed manneron the liquid metal 112′ wherever both the electric current “I” isflowing and the magnetic field “M” is present. The aggregation of thisbody force creates a pressure which can lead to ejection of the liquidmetal 112′. It should be appreciated that orienting the magnetic field“M” and the electric current substantially perpendicular to one anotherand substantially perpendicular to a direction of travel of the liquidmetal 112′ from the inlet region 210 to the discharge region 212 canresult in the most efficient use of the electric current “I” to ejectthe liquid metal 112′ through the use of MHD force.

In use, the electrical power source 118 can be controlled to pulse theelectric current “I” flowing between the electrodes 206. The pulsationcan produce a corresponding pulsation in the MHD force applied to theliquid metal 112′ in the firing chamber 216. If the impulse of thepulsation is sufficient, the pulsation of the MHD force on the liquidmetal 112′ in the firing chamber 208 can eject a corresponding dropletfrom the discharge region 212. Accordingly, drop-on-demand delivery ofdroplets of the liquid metal 112′ can be achieved by controlling afrequency of pulsation of the electric current “I”. For example, highplacement accuracy is desirable as the outer perimeter of each layer ofa part is printed. In regions where this perimeter is a straight line ora curved line of low curvature, the motion system will be able totraverse rapidly and therefore the printhead will be fired at a highfrequency. In some cases, the speed of the motion system will berestricted by the maximum frequency of drop ejection possible. Thismaximum frequency will depend on the design of the printhead, the sizeof the desired droplet and other factors and may vary between 1 and 20kiloHertz. However, as regions of the perimeter of high curvature aretraversed, the acceleration requirements may dictate that these regionsbe traversed at lower speed and therefore that the printhead be fired ata lower frequency. This is especially true for sharp corners where themotion mechanism may instantaneously come to a stop and the printheadmay similarly stop firing instantaneously.

In certain implementations, the pulsed electric current “I” can bedriven in a manner to control the shape of a droplet of the liquid metal112′ exiting the nozzle 102. In particular, because the electric current“I” interacts with the magnetic field “M” according to the right-handrule, a change in direction (polarity) of the electric current “I”across the firing chamber 216 can change the direction of the MHD forceon the liquid metal 112′ along an axis extending between the inletregion 210 and the discharge region 212. Thus, for example, by reversingthe polarity of the electric current “I” relative to the polarityassociated with ejection of the liquid metal 112′, the electric current“I” can exert a pullback force on the liquid metal 112′ in the fluidchamber 208.

Each pulse can be shaped with a pre-charge that applies a small,pullback force (opposite the direction of ejection of the liquid metal112′ from the discharge region 212) before creating an ejection drivesignal to propel one or more droplets of the liquid metal 112′ from thenozzle 102. In response to this pre-charge, the liquid metal 112′ can bedrawn up slightly with respect to the discharge region 212. Drawing theliquid metal 112′ slightly up toward the discharge orifice in this waycan provide numerous advantageous, including providing a path in which abolus of the liquid metal 112′ can accelerate for cleaner separationfrom the discharge orifice as the bolus of the liquid metal is expelledfrom the discharge orifice, resulting in a droplet with a morewell-behaved (e.g., stable) shape during travel. Similarly, theretracting motion can effectively spring load a forward surface of theliquid metal 112′ by drawing against surface tension of the liquid metal112′ along the discharge region 212. As the liquid metal 112′ is thensubjected to an MHD force to eject the liquid metal 112′, the forces ofsurface tension can help to accelerate the liquid metal 112′ towardejection from the discharge region 212.

Further, or instead, each pulse can be shaped to have a small pullbackforce following the end of the pulse. In such instances, because thepullback force is opposite a direction of travel of the liquid metal112′ being ejected from the discharge region 212, the small pullbackforce following the end of the pulse can facilitate clean separation ofthe liquid metal 112′ along the discharge region 212 from an exitingdroplet of the liquid metal 112′. Thus, in some implementations, thedrive signal produced by the electrical power source 118 can include awavelet with a pullback signal to pre-charge the liquid metal 112′, anejection signal to expel a droplet of the liquid metal, and a pullbacksignal to separate an exiting droplet of the liquid metal 112′ from theliquid metal 112′ along the discharge region 212. Additionally, oralternatively, the drive signal produced by the electrical power source118 can include one or more dwells between portions of each pulse.

While pulsing the electric current “I” at high frequencies can be usefulfor achieving speed targets associated with viable three-dimensionalprinting, it should be understood that resonance frequency of the liquidmetal 112′ in the fluid chamber 208 can limit the upper frequencyassociated with pulsing the electric current “I” to eject droplets ofthe liquid metal 112′. For example, maintaining the rate of pulsation ofthe electric current “I” (and the associated rate of pulsation of theMHD force) at a rate less than a rate associated with a resonantfrequency of the liquid metal 112′ in the fluid chamber 208 can reducethe likelihood of inadvertently producing droplet velocities that aretoo high or too low, drop volumes that are too high or too low, ejectionof multiple drops instead of single drops, and satellite drops. Thus, ingeneral, the electric current “I” can be pulsed at a frequency varyingbased on the position and/or speed of the discharge region 212 along thecontrolled pattern and conducted into the liquid metal 112′ in thefiring chamber 208, with an upper limit of the frequency being less thana resonant frequency of the liquid metal 112′ in the fluid chamber 208.As described in greater detail below, the nozzle 20 can include one ormore features directed toward achieving a high resonant frequency of theliquid metal 112′ in the fluid chamber 208 to facilitate accuratecontrol of liquid metal droplet delivery at high injection rates.

Given that the resonance frequency of the liquid metal 112′ in the fluidchamber 208 is a function of the overall axial length (e.g., an axiallength from the inlet region 210 to the discharge region 212) of thefluid chamber 208, several features of the nozzle 102 can be directedtoward producing MHD forces in a short overall axial length (to supportejection of the liquid metal 112′ in the fluid chamber 208 at highfrequencies) while remaining low enough to avoid excessive Joule heatingin the liquid metal 112′ during pulsation of the electric current “I”.That is, because the overall axial length of the fluid chamber 208 islimited by considerations related to resonance frequency, it isdesirable to make efficient use of the available axial length of thefluid chamber 208 to deliver the electric current “I” required toproduce MHD forces corresponding to appropriate droplet rates, sizes,and velocities.

In some implementations, the overall axial length of the fluid chamber208 can be greater than about 2 mm and less than about 2 cm to produce aresonance frequency high enough (e.g., about 20 kHz) to support a highfrequency ejection rate (e.g., a frequency of up to about 5 kHz at amaximum speed of movement of the discharge orifice 218 along thecontrolled pattern). In some instances, it can be desirable to increasethe resonant frequency of the nozzle 102 to be substantially above amaximum jetting frequency of the liquid metal 112′ (e.g., about 5 timeshigher, 10 times higher, or more). In such instances, any excitation ofa resonant frequency will have many oscillations to damp out. This canbe advantageous because the viscosity of the liquid metal 112′ is low(e.g., in the range of 1-5 centipoise) and is typically constant. Tomake efficient use of the axial length available for creating MHD forcesin the liquid metal 112′ in the fluid chamber 208, the electrodes 206can be positioned such that the electric current “I” conducted from theelectrodes 206 into the firing chamber 216 intersects the magnetic field“M” in the firing chamber 216 at a point substantially adjacent to adischarge orifice 218 of the discharge region 212. As a specific exampleof introducing the electric current “I” substantially adjacent to thedischarge orifice 218, a volume of the fluid chamber 208 between thefiring chamber 216 and the discharge orifice 218 can be less than aboutten percent of a total volume of the fluid chamber 208. Additionally, oralternatively, an axial length of the firing chamber 216 at leastpartially defined by the electrodes 206 can be more than half of theaxial length of the fluid chamber 208 from the inlet region 210 to thedischarge region 212. In some instances, the sum of the length of theinlet region 210 and the discharge region 218 can be less than about 20percent of the total length of the fluid chamber 208.

A particular challenge associated with the use of the electrodes 206 toconduct the electric current “I” into the liquid metal 112′ can be theselection of an appropriate material that can be used in combinationwith the liquid metal 112′. In general, it is desirable to select thematerial of the electrodes 206 such that the electrodes 206 can operatereliably over long periods of time in the presence of the liquid metal112′, which may require high temperatures to remain in the molten state.Accordingly, the material of the electrodes 206 can have a melttemperature equal to or greater than a melt temperature of the liquidmetal 112′ in contact with the electrodes 206 such that the electrodes206 will not be consumed during operation of the nozzle 102 and reducethe likelihood of contamination of the object 116 being formed.Additionally, or alternatively, the material of the electrodes 206 canbe substantially unreactive with the liquid metal 112′ (e.g., thematerial can be inert with respect to the liquid metal 112′ or form apassivation layer in the presence of the liquid metal 112′) to reduce,for example, the likelihood of degraded performance of material overtime. Further or instead, the material of the electrodes can have anelectrical resistivity substantially similar to the electricalresistivity of the liquid metal 112′ to facilitate accurate direction ofthe electric current “I” and, thus, accurate direction of the liquidmetal 112′ ejected from the discharge region 212. Thus, as a specificexample, the electrodes can be formed of one or more of tantalum andniobium in instances in which the liquid metal 112′ is aluminum or analuminum alloy.

In some implementations, the electrodes 206 can be formed of the samematerial as the liquid metal 112′ at the respective interface betweeneach of the electrodes 206 and the liquid metal 112′. It should beappreciated that such implementations can represent an advantageoussolution to the issue of material selection, particularly as the issueof material selection relates to materials having one or more of a melttemperature, a reactivity, and an electrical resistivity that aredifficult to match using economically available materials of a differentcomposition. As a specific example, forming the electrodes 206 of thesame material as the liquid metal 112′ can facilitate the use of steelas the liquid metal 112′.

In implementations in which the electrodes 206 and the liquid metal 112′are formed of the same material, the respective electrode 206 is moltenat an interface 220 between the respective electrode 206 and the liquidmetal 112′. Further, the interfaces 220 can move in response to, amongother things, temperature fluctuations that can occur during normaloperation of the nozzle 102. Accordingly, to facilitate robust operationof the nozzle 102, the position of the interface 220 can be controlledto within a predetermined region within the fluid chamber 208. Forexample, a maximum radial dimension of the firing chamber 216 can bewider than a maximum radial dimension of the fluid chamber 208 adjacentto the firing chamber 216 (e.g., wider than the inlet region 210, thedischarge region 212, or both). Continuing with this example, eachinterface 220 can be controlled to be along a portion of the respectiverecess 214 away from the general flow path of the liquid metal 112′moving from the inlet region 210 to the discharge region 212.

In certain instances, controlling the position of each interface 220 caninclude cooling a portion 222 of each electrode 206 away from therespective interface 220. In general, it should be appreciated that theresulting temperature gradient in the electrode 206 can move theinterface 220 in a direction away from the flow path of the liquid metal112′ as the liquid metal 112′ is ejected from the discharge region 212.Accordingly, to facilitate controlling the position of the interface218, the nozzle 102 can include a heat sink 224 coupled to the portion222 of each electrode 206. As an example, the heat sink 224 can cool theportion 222 of each electrode 206 through forced convection, which canoptionally be controlled (e.g., based at least in part on a rate ofejection of the liquid metal 112′ from the discharge region 212) toachieve a target temperature. As a more specific example, the heat sink224 can include a fluid (e.g., water) movable away from the portion 222of each electrode 206 to cool the electrode 206. Additionally, oralternatively, in implementations in which the portion 222 of eachelectrode 206 extends outside of the housing 202 in a direction awayfrom the firing chamber 216, the heat sink 224 can include a fanoperable to move air over the portion 220 of each electrode 206. Whileeach electrode 206 is shown as thermally coupled to a respective one ofthe heat sinks 224, it should be appreciated that the electrodes 206 canbe alternatively coupled to a single heat sink.

In general, the direction of travel of the electric current “I” acrossthe firing chamber can impact the direction of the MHD force exerted onthe liquid metal 112′ and, thus, can influence accuracy of dropletdelivery. While forming the electrodes 206 and the liquid metal 112′ ofthe same material or otherwise matching the resistivity of theelectrodes 206 and the liquid metal 112′ can reduce the likelihood ofinadvertent misdirection of the electric current “I” resulting frommismatches in resistivity of the material of the electrodes 206 and theliquid metal 112′, it should be appreciated that some degree of mismatchin resistivity can nevertheless be present during use (e.g., throughslight differences in materials). Accordingly, to reduce the likelihoodof inadvertent misdirection of the electric current “I” across thefiring chamber 208, the firing chamber 208 can be defined to have asubstantially rectangular cross-section in a plane perpendicular to adirection of travel of the liquid metal 112′ from the inlet region 210toward the discharge region 212. Because a substantially rectangularcross-section does not have a maximum dimension, it should beappreciated that the electric current “I” is more likely to be evenlydistributed along the substantially rectangular cross-section, ascompared to a non-rectangular cross-section (e.g., a circularcross-section) having a maximum dimension along which a preferredcurrent path can form.

The housing 202 can be formed of a material that is thermally,chemically, and electrically compatible with supporting the electrodes206 and the liquid metal 112′ for application of the electric current“I” to the liquid metal 112′ to create MHD forces as necessary to buildthe object 116. More specifically, in instances in which the electriccurrent “I” is directed into the liquid metal 112′ through the interface220 of molten material between the electrodes 206 and the liquid metal112′, the material of the housing 202 can have a higher meltingtemperature than the material of the electrodes 206 and the liquid metal112′ to support the interface 218 between the electrodes 206 and theliquid metal 112′. For example, the housing 202 can be formed of amaterial that can support liquid metals having a melt temperaturegreater than about 550° C. and less than about 1500° C. As a morespecific example, the housing 202 can be formed of a ceramic material,which can withstand high temperatures associated with a molten state ofcertain metals (e.g., steel). Examples of such ceramic materialsinclude, but are not limited to one or more of alumina, sapphire, ruby,aluminum nitride, aluminum carbide, silicon nitride, sialons, and boroncarbide. Additionally, or alternatively, the housing 202 can be formedof more than one material, which can be useful for reducing the use ofmore expensive materials along portions of the housing 202 where theproperties of the more expensive material may be less critical and aless expensive material can provide adequate performance.

A heater 226 can be supported along the housing 202 and, further orinstead, can be in thermal communication with the liquid metal 112′ inthe fluid chamber 208 to heat the liquid metal 112′ in the fluid chamber208. Additionally, or alternatively, the heater 226 can heat the solidmetal 112 as the solid metal 112 is moved through the inlet region 210and into the fluid chamber 208. The heater 226 can, for example, includea resistive heating circuit including a resistance wire (e.g., one ormore of nichrome and Kanthal®, a ferritic iron-chromium-aluminum alloyavailable from Sandvik AB of Hallstahammar, Sweden). In implementationsin which the housing 202 is formed of a ceramic material, for example,the resistance wire can be wrapped directly around the housing 202.Additionally, or alternatively, the resistance wire can be embedded atleast a portion of the housing 202 to heat the fluid chamber 208. Incertain instances, the heater 226 can include one or more cartridgeheaters inserted into the housing. Cartridge heaters contain resistanceheating elements packaged, typically into a tubular container. Further,or instead, the heater 226 can include an induction heating circuitincluding an induction coil wrapped around the housing 202. Other typesof heaters can be further or instead used to deliver heat to the fluidchamber include, but are not limited to radiation heaters, convectionheaters, and combinations thereof.

It should be understood that the heating requirements associated withjetting droplets of the liquid metal 112′ can depend on the compositionof the liquid metal 112′. In certain implementations, the metal can bein liquid form at room temperature, such that MHD forces can be appliedto the liquid metal 112′ without the use of the heater 122. In someimplementations, such as in the case of aluminum or aluminum alloys, thehousing 202 can be heated to a temperature of greater than about 600° C.(e.g., about 650° C.) such that aluminum or aluminum alloy is in liquidform in the fluid chamber 208. Additionally, or alternatively, incertain implementations, such as in the case of steel, the housing 202can be heated to greater than about 1550° C. such that steel is inliquid form in the fluid chamber 208.

The one or more magnets 204 can include fixed magnets. For example, theone or more magnets 204 can include rare earth magnets or any othermagnet or group of magnets capable of generating an adequate magneticfield across the firing chamber 216. In some implementations, the one ormore magnets 204 can also, or instead, include an electromagnet.Increasing the magnetic field present within the liquid metal 112′ canreduce the requirements on one or more of the magnitude and duration ofthe current pulse and is, therefore, desirable. Hallbach arrays ofpermanent magnets can be used, in some implementations, to increase thestrength of the field.

The one or more magnets 204 can be sized and arranged such that themagnetic field “M” produced by the one or more magnets 204 spanssubstantially the entire fluid chamber 208. In instances in whichelectrodes, such as the electrodes 206 are formed of the same materialas the liquid metal being jetted, such as the liquid metal 112′, themagnetic field “M” can be established along the entire length of amolten portion, such as the interfaces 220, to reduce the likelihood offluid eddy currents. In this way, the likelihood of forming fluid eddycurrents in the liquid metal 112′ can be decreased relative to thelikelihood of forming fluid eddy currents with magnetic fields that spanless of the fluid chamber 208.

A challenge associated with producing adequate MHD forces in the liquidmetal 112′ in the firing chamber 208 can be the thermal management ofthe one or more magnets 204 in applications in which the liquid metal112′ has a melting temperature above a temperature associated withdegradation of the magnetic properties of the one or more magnets 204(e.g., a temperature of greater than about 150° C.). Specifically, themagnetic field strength of many magnets decreases rapidly with distanceaway from the magnet. Accordingly, to produce a sufficiently strongmagnetic field in the firing chamber 208, it can be desirable to placethe one or more magnets 204 in relatively close proximity to the fluidchamber 208 (e.g., within about 2 mm of the fluid chamber 208). However,in those instances in which the heater 226 is heating the firing chamber208 above a temperature associated with degraded magnetic field strengthof the one or more magnets 204. Such a temperature can correspond, forexample, to the Curie temperature of the material of the one or moremagnets 204. Additionally, or alternatively, such a temperature cancorrespond to at which the field strength of the one or more magnets 204decreases by greater than about 10 percent.

To facilitate balancing the competing considerations of magnetic fieldstrength with the temperature sensitivity of the one or more magnets204, the nozzle 102 can include a thermal insulation layer 228. Ingeneral, the thermal insulation layer 228 can be thin, having athickness of greater than about 0.5 mm and less than about 2 mm (e.g.,having a thickness of between greater than about 0.8 mm and less thanabout 1.2 mm) and have lower thermal conductivity than the thermalconductivity of the portion of the housing 202 on which the thermalinsulation layer 228 is mounted. For example, the thermal conductivityof the thermal insulation layer 228 can be greater than about 0.015W/m-K and less than about 0.1 W/m-k. Exemplary materials suitable foruse in the thermal insulation layer 228 can include a silica ceramic, analumina-silica ceramic, and combinations thereof.

The thermal insulation layer 228 can be held in place on the housing 202by the magnetic field formed by the one or more magnets 204. It shouldbe appreciated that such placement of the thermal insulation layer 228in this way can reduce or eliminate the need for other forms offastening the thermal insulation layer 228 to the housing 202. Further,or instead, because the thermal insulation layer 228 does not need to bemodified (e.g., drilled) to be mounted in this manner, mounting thethermal insulation layer 228 through the use of the one or more magnets204 can be useful for retaining the thermal performance of the thermalinsulation layer 228.

Additionally, or alternatively, the housing 202 can be thinner along adirection in which the magnetic field of the one or more magnets 204extends through the housing 202 than in the direction in which electriccurrent is conducted between the electrodes 206. That is, the one ormore magnets 204 can be placed along the thinner portion of the housing202 to facilitate creating a strong magnetic field in the firing chamber216 through close placement of the one or more magnets 204. Theelectrodes 206 can be placed along the thicker portion of the housing202 to facilitate, for example, mounting the electrodes 206.Additionally, or alternatively, in instances in which the electrodes 206and the liquid metal 112′ are separated by a molten interface (e.g., theinterface 220) placement of the electrodes along the thicker portion ofthe housing can provide more significant spacing between the electrodesin the firing chamber 216 to facilitate controlling the respectiveinterfaces 220 within the respective recesses 214 over the course ofoperation of the nozzle 10.

In certain instances, the nozzle 102 can include heat sinks 230 inthermal communication with the one or more magnets 204 to reduce thelikelihood that heat from the housing 202 will adversely impact themagnetic properties of the one or more magnets 204. The heat sinks 230can be, for example, spaced apart from the housing 202 to facilitatecarrying heat away from the one or more magnets 204 while reducing thelikelihood that the heat sinks 230 would interfere with control overtemperature of the liquid metal 112′ in the fluid chamber 208. The heatsinks 230 can carry heat away from the one or more magnets 204 throughforced convection. For example, a cooling fluid (e.g., water) can bemovable through the heat sinks 230 to provide cooling. Additionally, oralternatively, the nozzle 102 can include one or more fans directed atthe heat sinks 230 provide forced air convective cooling. In suchinstances, the heat sinks 230 can be finned heat sinks of the type knownin the art.

The use of the nozzle 102 in high-speed additive manufacturing processescan be facilitated through the use of the feeder system 104 to movemetal through the system 100 to provide a continuous or substantiallycontinuous supply of the liquid metal 112′ to the fluid chamber 208. Inparticular, as described in greater detail below, the feeder system 104can move the solid metal 112 toward the inlet region 210 at a ratesufficient to maintain the liquid metal 112′ in the fluid chamber 208.Additionally, or alternatively, as also described in greater detailbelow, the feeder system 104 can remove debris formed in or around theinlet region 210, which can be useful for reducing downtime and/or partdefects associated with such debris.

The feeder system 104 can include, for example, a plurality of rollers232 engageable with the solid metal 112. The solid metal 112 can be inthe form of a metal wire or other similar elongate shape such that thesolid metal 112 is engaged in corresponding grooves defined by theplurality of rollers 232. In use, the plurality of rollers 232 canrotate relative to one another to feed the solid metal 112 toward thefluid chamber 208. In certain implementations, the heat produced by theheater 226 to heat the housing 202 and the fluid chamber 208 can meltthe solid metal 112 as the solid metal 112 is moved into the vicinity ofthe inlet region 210.

In some implementations, the feeder system 104 can be actuatable todirect the solid metal 112 into the inlet region 210 at a variable rate.The variable rate can be based, for example, on a rate of ejection ofthe liquid metal 112′ from the discharge region 212. The rate ofejection can be a measured rate of an actual amount of the liquid metal112′ ejection from the discharge region 212 (e.g., measured by a sensordirected at the liquid metal 112′ being ejected from the dischargeregion 212). Additionally, or alternatively, the rate of ejection can bean estimate rate based on the amount of the liquid metal 112′ requiredto satisfy fabrication requirements of the object 116 to a given pointin the fabrication of the object 116. More generally, the variable ratecan be useful for reducing the likelihood that the fluid chamber 208will be depleted of the liquid metal 112′ before an additional amount ofthe liquid metal 112′ can be provided to the fluid chamber 208 by thefeeder system 104.

In general, the solid metal 112 can melt into the liquid metal 112′ at aposition above the inlet region 210 and outside of the housing 202 or ata position within the inlet region 210. It should be appreciated,however, that melting the solid metal 112 too far into the inlet region210 can cause interference with the pulsations of the electric current“I” in the liquid metal 112′ in the fluid chamber 208. Also, or instead,melting the solid metal too far outside of the inlet region 210 canresult in a discontinuity between the solid metal 112 and the liquidmetal 112′. Such a discontinuity can be unfavorable, as it can lead tothe introduction of air into the fluid chamber 208, which can disruptthe accurate and controlled formation of droplets. Such a discontinuitycan also be unfavorable in that it may change the jetting by changingthe boundary condition for reflections at the top of the build chamber.

Given these competing considerations, the system 100 can include, incertain implementations, a sensor 120 directed toward the inlet region210 to detect an interface between the solid metal 112 and the liquidmetal 112′ along a predetermined axial distance on each side of theinlet region 210 (e.g., above and below an inlet orifice of the inletregion 210 and defining entry into the housing 202). As an example, thepredetermined axial distance can be substantially equal to one-half of amaximum dimension of the inlet region 210. Thus, in instances in whichthe inlet region 210 has a circular cross section in a planeperpendicular to an axis defined by the inlet region 210 and thedischarge region 212, the predetermined axial distance can besubstantially equal to the radius of the inlet region 210 such that thesensor 120 can detect an interface between the solid metal 112 and theliquid metal 112′ within a predetermined distance of one radius above aninlet orifice of the inlet region 210 and within a predetermine distanceof one radius below an inlet orifice of the inlet region 210.

In certain instances, the sensor 120 can be in electrical communicationwith the feeder system 104 to change a rate of movement of the solidmetal 112 into the inlet region 210 based on a signal received from thesensor 120. By way of example, and not limitation, the feeder system 104can change a rate of rotation of the rollers 232 based at least in parton a position of the boundary between the solid metal 112 and the liquidmetal 112′. Continuing with this example, more specifically, the rate ofrotation of the rollers 232 can be increased to move the interfacebetween the solid metal 112 and the liquid metal 112′ further into theinlet region 210 or decreased to move the interface further out of theinlet region 210.

In some implementations, the sensor 120 can detect a discontinuitybetween the solid metal 112 and the liquid metal 112′ along thepredetermined axial distance on each side of the inlet region.

The sensor 120 can include any one or more of various sensors known inthe art for detecting continuity of a material. For example, the sensor120 can include machine vision directed at the inlet region 210. Themachine vision can detect, for example, one or more of an interruptionin the continuity of the solid metal 112 and the liquid metal 112′ and aposition of the interface between the solid metal 112 and the liquidmetal 112′. Additionally, or alternatively, the sensor 120 can includean optical break-beam sensor directed across the liquid metal 112′ nearthe inlet region 210 to detect an interruption in the of the continuityof the solid metal 112 and the liquid metal 112′.

In some implementations, the inlet region 210 can include asubstantially funnel shape to reduce the likelihood of detaching thesolid metal 112 from the liquid metal 112′ as the solid metal 112 ismoved toward the inlet region 210. The substantially funnel shape can beuseful, for example, for accommodating slight variations in position ofthe solid metal 112 relative to the inlet region 210 caused by movementof the feeder system 104, the inlet region 210, or both.

As the solid metal 112 becomes liquid metal 112′ in the vicinity of theinlet region 210, debris can form along or near the inlet region 210.Over time, the accumulation of such debris can increase the likelihoodof contamination of the liquid metal 112′ and, ultimately, contaminationof the object 116 being fabricated. Accordingly, the feeder system 104can include a wiper 234 movable relative to the inlet region 210 toremove debris adjacent to or within the inlet region 210. The wiper 234can be, for example, a substantially rigid member movable across thehousing 202 to remove debris from the inlet region 210. In certainimplementations, the wiper 234 can be movable relative to the inletregion 210 during an interruption between the solid metal 112 and theliquid metal 112′ (e.g., as part of a routine maintenance schedule,between fabrication of objects, or both). Typically, the wire can bewithdrawn prior to the wiping action, and this wiping action is notperformed while the liquid metal 112′ is being ejected from the nozzle102.

In certain implementations, the feeder system 104 can include a source236 of pressurized gas actuatable to disperse pressurized gas relativeto the inlet region 210 to remove debris adjacent to or within the inletregion 210. The pressurized gas can be, for example, a gas in theenvironment of the build chamber 110. Thus, in instances in which thegas in the environment of the build chamber 110 is an inert gas (e.g.,nitrogen or argon), the pressurized gas can be the same inert gas. Incertain implementations, the source 236 of pressurized gas can bearranged to directed the pressurized gas through the inlet region 210 ina direction toward the discharge region 212.

Additionally, or alternatively, removing debris adjacent to or withinthe inlet region 210 can include using MHD forces to remove debris inand adjacent to the inlet region. As a specific example, the polarity ofthe electric pulse E can be reversed relative to the polarity associatedwith ejection of the liquid metal 112′ from the discharge region 212.With the polarity of the electric pulse E driven in this direction, theMHD force exerted on the liquid metal 112′ in the fluid chamber 208 isin a direction from the discharge region 212 toward the inlet region210. Driving the electric pulse E with sufficient magnitude, therefore,can produce an MHD force sufficient to eject the liquid metal 112′through the inlet region 210. It should be appreciated that the ejectionof the liquid metal 112′ in this direction can force debris away fromthe inlet region 210 and carry away debris that can be anywhere withinthe fluid chamber 208, including in throat of the discharge region 212.

Referring again to FIG. 1, the feeder system 104 can supply the solidmetal 112 to the nozzle 102, and the nozzle 102 can eject the liquidmetal 112′, as the robotic system 106 moves the nozzle 102 relative tothe build plate 114 along a controlled pattern within the working volume108 of the build chamber 110. As used herein, the movement of the nozzle102 relative to the build plate 114 should be understood to include anycombination of relative movement of the nozzle 102 and the build plate114 and, thus, includes movement of the nozzle 102 while the build plate114 is stationary, movement of the build plate 114 while the nozzle isstationary 102, and movement of the nozzle 102 while the build plate 114is also moving.

The robotic system 128 can be any of various different robotics systemsare known in the art and suitable for moving components along acontrolled pattern, such as a controlled two-dimensional pattern, acontrolled three-dimensional pattern, or combinations thereof. Forexample, the robotic system 106 can include a Cartesian or x-y-zrobotics system employing a number of linear controls to moveindependently in the x-axis, the y-axis, and the z-axis within the buildchamber 110. Additionally, or alternatively, the robotic system 106 caninclude delta robots, which can, in certain implementations, providesignificant advantages in terms of speed and stiffness, as well asoffering the design convenience of fixed motors or drive elements. Otherconfigurations such as double or triple delta robots can, additionallyor alternatively, be used and can increase range of motion usingmultiple linkages. More generally, any robotics suitable for controlledpositioning of the nozzle 102 and the build plate 114 relative to oneanother, especially within a vacuum or similar environment, may formpart of the robotic system 106, including any mechanism or combinationof mechanisms suitable for actuation, manipulation, locomotion and thelike within the build chamber 138.

As the liquid metal 112′ is ejected from the nozzle 102 to form theobject 116 in the build chamber 110, the temperature of the object 116being fabricated can be controlled to facilitate achieving desireddeposition of the liquid metal 112′ on the object 116. For example, thetemperature of the object 116 can be controlled through heating thebuild plate 114 using, for example, closed loop temperature control asis known in the art. However, thermal communication between the buildplate 114 and the surface of the object 116 being fabricated candecrease as successive layers are built on top of one another ininstances in which the object 116 is a three-dimensional part.Accordingly, the system 100 can include a heater 122 to heat theenvironment within the build chamber 110. For example, the heater 122can heat air or inert gas within the build chamber 110 to a targettemperature. Additionally, or alternatively, the heater 122 can includea fan to circulate the heated air around the object 116 to maintain atarget temperature of the object 116 through connective heat transfer.

Given that the droplets have high thermal conductivity associated withmetals, the droplets can freeze rapidly upon landing on the object 116if the object 116 is cool. This can limit the ability of an impingingdroplet to merge into the object 116 being fabricated without leaving avoid space which, in turn, can compromise the ability to make a fullydense part. Thus, in general, the temperature of the object 116 withinthe build chamber 110 can be controlled to promote impingement of thedroplet to merge into the object 116. For example, the object 116 can bemaintained at a temperature slightly below the solidus temperature sothat the object 116 can be solid when new droplets arrive, but theobject 116 extracts heat slowly from the freshly impinging droplets.Additionally, or alternatively, the temperature of the part can belowered such that the newly impinging droplet has some amount of timebefore it freezes, but the newly impinging droplet freezes before thenext droplets arises. Continuing with this example, such temperaturecontrol can reduce the likelihood that two droplets will merge to form afeature larger than intended and, thus, conversely, such temperaturecontrol can facilitate providing resolution to the object 116. As aspecific example of such temperature control, if the droplets are beingejected from the nozzle 102 at a frequency of about 1 kHz, thetemperature of the object 116 can be controlled to freeze in a timeranging from about 0.1 milliseconds to about 0.5 milliseconds afterimpingement. In this way, each droplet will be frozen before the nextdroplet arrives and, yet, each droplet will have some time to spread onthe object 116, thus reducing the probability of unintended voids in theobject 116. Additionally, the amount of time required to freeze a newlyimpinged droplet can be varied by changing the temperature of thehousing 202 and the liquid metal 112′ that is ejected. For example,raising the temperature of the liquid metal 112′ that is ejected willgenerally increase the amount of time required for the droplet tofreeze.

Further, or instead, because the droplets of the liquid metal 112′, theobject 116 can be reactive in certain environments, the build chamber110 be controlled to be a substantially inert environment compatiblewith the metal being used for fabrication. For example, the buildchamber 110 can include an inert gas such as argon or nitrogen.Additionally, or alternatively, the build chamber 116 can be anenvironmentally sealed chamber that can be evacuated with a vacuum pump130 or similar device to provide a vacuum environment for fabrication.

In general, the three-dimensional printer 100 can include a controlsystem 126 that can manage operation of the three-dimensional printer100 to fabricate the three-dimensional object 116. For example, thecontrol system 126 can be in electrical communication with one or moreof the nozzle 102, the feeder system 104, the robotic system 106, thebuild plate 114, the electric power source 118, the sensor 120, and theheater 122. Thus, for example, the control system 124 can actuate therobotic system 106 to move the nozzle 102 along a controlledthree-dimensional pattern and additionally, or alternatively, thecontrol system 124 can actuate the feeder system 104 to move the solidmetal 112 toward the inlet region 210 and actuate the electrical powersource 118 to control ejection of the liquid metal 112′ from the nozzle102 as one or more of the nozzle 102 and the build plate 130 are movedalong the controlled pattern. The controlled pattern can be based on amodel 126 stored, for example, in a database 128, such as a local memoryof a computer used as the control system 124, or a remote databaseaccessible through a server or other remote resource, or in any othercomputer-readable medium accessible to the control system 124. Incertain implementations, the control system 124 can retrieve the model126 in response to user input, and generate machine-ready instructionsfor execution by the three-dimensional printer 100 to fabricate theobject 116. More generally, unless otherwise specified or made obviousfrom the context, the control system 126 can be used to control one ormore portions of the three-dimensional printer 100 according to any oneor more of the various different methods described herein.

FIG. 3 is a flowchart of an exemplary method 300 of printing liquidmetal through the application of MHD forces. It should be appreciatedthat the exemplary method 300 can be carried out using, for example, anyone or more of the three-dimensional printers described herein and,thus, can be carried out using the three-dimensional printer 100described above with respect to FIGS. 1-2D. It should be furtherappreciated that the exemplary method 300 can be implemented in additionto or instead of any one or more of the other methods described herein,unless otherwise stated or made clear from the context.

As shown in step 310, the exemplary method can include providing aliquid metal in a fluid chamber. The fluid chamber can be any one ormore of the various different fluid chambers described herein and, thus,be at least partially defined by any one or more of the housingsdescribed herein and can have an inlet region and a discharge region.

As shown in step 320, the exemplary method can include directing amagnetic field through the nozzle. For example, the magnet can bepositioned close enough to the fluid chamber such that the magneticfield of the magnet passes through a portion of the nozzle containingthe liquid metal.

As shown in step 330, the exemplary method can include moving thedischarge region of the fluid chamber in a controlled pattern. Thedischarge region can be moved along the controlled pattern through, forexample, actuation of a robotic system such as the robotic system 106described above with respect to the three-dimensional printer 100. Incertain implementations, the controlled pattern can be athree-dimensional pattern used to form a three-dimensional objectthrough successive delivery of layers of the liquid metal. Additionally,or alternatively, the controlled pattern can be a two-dimensionalpattern used, for example, to form a pattern or trace on a substrate orother two-dimensional surface.

As shown in step 340, the exemplary method can include conducting apulsed electric current into the liquid metal in a firing chamber withinthe fluid chamber between the inlet region and the discharge region. Thepulsed electric current can intersect the magnetic field in the firingchamber to exert MHD force on the liquid metal in the firing chamber, asdescribed above. In particular, the pulsation of the electric currentcan intersect the magnetic field to eject the liquid metal from thedischarge region to form an object (e.g., a three-dimensional object).In general, the characteristics of the pulsed electric current can bebased on the position of the discharge region along the controlledpattern. For example, the pulse frequency can be lower when ejectingliquid metal onto an aspect of the part that has high geometriccurvature in a build plane. Similarly, the pulse magnitude, duration, orboth can be based on the position of the discharge region along thecontrolled pattern to control the size of the liquid metal dropletsbased on the position along the controlled pattern.

In general, the pulsed electric current can be conducted into the liquidmetal in the firing chamber at a frequency that is less than a resonancefrequency of the liquid metal in the fluid chamber in which the firingchamber is disposed. For example, based on features of the nozzlesdescribed herein, the resonant frequency of the liquid metal in thefluid chamber can be greater than about 20 kHz. Accordingly, as thedischarge region 212 moves along the controlled pattern, the frequencyof the pulsed electric current can be varied below 20 kHz, as necessaryto achieve accuracy and speed targets associated with fabrication of theobject.

In certain implementations, the frequency of the pulsed electric currentcan be varied based on a speed of travel of the discharge region alongthe controlled pattern. Thus, for example, the pulsed electric currentcan have a lower frequency as a robotic system moves the dischargeregion at a slower speed, and the frequency of the pulsed electriccurrent can have a higher frequency as the robotic system moves thedischarge region at a higher speed. Additionally, or alternatively, thefrequency of the pulsed electric current can be based on the position ofthe discharge orifice along the controlled pattern.

FIG. 4 is a flowchart of an exemplary method 400 of controlling electriccurrent between a pulsed current mode and a direct current mode tocontrol a rate of liquid metal ejection through MHD forces. It should beunderstood that, in general, the pulsed current mode can result in theproduction of discrete droplets of the liquid metal. By comparison, thedirect current mode can result in the production of a substantiallyconstant stream of the liquid metal. It should be appreciated,therefore, that switching between the pulsed current and the directcurrent can advantageously provide control over both accuracy and speedof fabrication of an object using any one or more of thethree-dimensional printers described herein. It should be furtherappreciated that the exemplary method 400 can be implemented using anyone or more of the various three-dimensional printers described hereinand can be implemented in addition to or instead of any one or more ofthe other methods described herein, unless otherwise stated or madeclear from the context.

As shown in step 410, the exemplary method 400 can include providing aliquid metal in a fluid chamber. The fluid chamber can be any one ormore of the fluid chambers described herein and, therefore, can bedefined by a housing and can have an inlet region and a dischargeregion.

As shown in step 420, the exemplary method 400 can include directing amagnetic field through the housing. The magnetic field can be directedthrough the housing by any one or more of the magnets described herein.Thus, for example, the magnetic field can be directed through thehousing by one or more magnet supported on the housing and in closeproximity to the liquid metal in the fluid chamber, even as the liquidmetal is heated to high temperatures (e.g., greater than about 150° C.or higher temperatures typically associated with significant degradationof magnetic properties of the one or more magnets).

As shown in step 430, the exemplary method 400 can include moving thedischarge region of the fluid chamber in a controlled pattern. Thecontrolled pattern can be based, for example, on a model of the objectbeing fabricated. Thus, for example, in instances in which the modelbeing fabricated is a three-dimensional object, the controlled patterncan be a three-dimensional pattern based on a three-dimensional model ofthe object.

The requirements for accuracy of placement of the liquid metal can varyalong the controlled pattern. For example, in certain instances, agreater degree of accuracy can be required along a boundary of theobject being fabricated. Achievement of the requisite accuracy along aboundary region, therefore, can be achieved through ejection of discretedroplets. More specifically, control over parameters such as parameterssuch as droplet size, shape, velocity, direction, and cooling can beuseful for depositing metal on the surface of the object with a greatdeal of accuracy. Such accuracy, however, is generally at the expense ofthe time required for fabrication of the object. As another example, alesser degree of accuracy can be required away from the boundary of theobject being fabricated (e.g., a portion of the object defined betweenthe boundary). In these regions, liquid metal can be advantageouslyejected using less time-consuming techniques to reduce the time requiredfor fabrication of the object.

As shown in step 440, the exemplary method 400 can include deliveringelectric current between electrodes defining at least a portion of afiring chamber within the fluid chamber between the inlet region and thedischarge region. The electric current can intersect the magnetic fieldin the liquid metal in the firing chamber to produce an MHD forcesufficient to eject the liquid metal from the discharge region.

As shown in step 450, the exemplary method 400 can include controllingthe electric current between pulsed current and direct current to forman object. In general, controlling the electric current between pulsedelectric current and direct current can be based on the position of thedischarge region along the controlled pattern. Thus, for example, theelectric current can be controlled to be pulsed electric current along aboundary of the object being formed and to be direct current along anexcursion within the boundary of the object being formed. Such switchingbetween pulsed electric current and direct current can, for example,facilitate accurate control of liquid metal deposition along theboundary of the object being fabricated while also facilitating rapidfabrication of the object away from the boundary of the object.

In general, the frequency of the pulsed current can be controlledaccording to any one or more of the various methods of controllingpulsed electric current described herein. Thus, for example, thefrequency of the pulsed current can be less than a resonance frequencyof the liquid metal in the fluid chamber. Further, or instead, thefrequency of the pulsed current can be based on speed of movement of thedischarge region along the controlled pattern. In certainimplementations, the frequency of the pulsed current can be less than 20kHz at a maximum speed of movement of the discharge region along thecontrolled pattern. In some implementations, the frequency of the pulsedcurrent can be based on a distance of the discharge region 212 from anedge of the controlled pattern. Thus, for example, as the dischargeregion 212 slows down upon approaching an edge of the controlledpattern, the frequency of the pulsed current can decrease accordingly.

Switching from the pulsed current to the direct current can increase amass flow rate of the liquid metal from the discharge region. Thus, forexample, a discharge rate of the liquid metal under MHD forces producedby delivering direct current into the firing chamber can be greater thana maximum discharge rate of the liquid metal achieved under the maximumfrequency of the pulse current (e.g., a maximum frequency below aresonance frequency of the liquid metal in the fluid chamber).Accordingly, switching from the pulsed current to the direct current canfacilitate depositing the liquid metal at a faster rate, as compared toonly pulsing the electric current.

FIG. 5 is a flowchart of an exemplary method 500 of using MHD forces toform a part having one or more porous features facilitating separationof a part from a support structure of the part. That is, an object caninclude a part and a support structure of the part. The exemplary method500 can be used to form one or more porous features at one or moreinterfaces between the part and the support structure of the part. Inuse, the part can be preferentially separated from the support structurealong the one or more porous features. It should be appreciated that theexemplary method 500 can be implemented using any one or more of thevarious three-dimensional printers described herein and can beimplemented in addition to or instead of any one or more of the othermethods described herein, unless otherwise stated or made clear from thecontext.

As shown in step 510, the exemplary method 500 can include providing aliquid metal in a fluid chamber. The fluid chamber can be any one ormore of the fluid chambers described herein and, thus, can be partiallydefined any one or more of the housings described herein and can have aninlet region and a discharge region.

As shown in step 520, the exemplary method 500 can include directing amagnetic field through the housing. The magnetic field can be directedinto the housing by one or more of the magnets described herein.

As shown in step 530, the exemplary method 500 can include moving thedischarge region of the fluid chamber in a controlled three-dimensionalpattern. The controlled three-dimensional pattern can correspond, forexample, to an object having a part and a support structure. As usedherein, the term support structure can include any portion of the objectused to support a portion of the part during fabrication (includingprinting and post-processing (e.g., sintering)) and, thus, the supportstructure itself can be another part such that the object includes aplurality of parts and the introduction of the porosity into the objectcan facilitate separation of the plurality of parts.

As shown in step 540, the exemplary method 500 can include deliveringelectric current between electrodes at least partially defining a firingchamber within the fluid chamber between the inlet region and thedischarge region. The electric current can intersect the magnetic fieldin the liquid metal in the firing chamber to eject the liquid metal fromthe discharge region according to any one or more of the methodsdescribed herein. The electric current can be delivered using one ormore of pulsed current or direct current. For example, the electriccurrent can be delivered as direct current away from an interfacebetween a part and a support structure or another part, and the electriccurrent can be delivered as pulsed current along the interface.

As shown in step 550, the exemplary method 500 can include controllingporosity of one or more predetermined portions of the object beingfabricated. For example, the porosity of one or more predeterminedportions of an accumulation of the ejected liquid metal on a build plateor on a previously deposited layer of metal as the object is beingfabricated. In general, the porosity can be controlled to forminterfaces between a support structure and a part, with the porosity ofthe interface having a higher porosity than the porosity of the supportstructure and the part. For example, the support structure, theinterface, and the part can be formed of the same material such that thechange in porosity at the interface can define the weakest point in theobject and, thus, form a location of preferential separation of thesupport structure from the part. In certain instances, the interface canbe frangible such that, for example, the support structure and the partcan readily separate from one another through the application of one ormore of a compressive force and a shear force at the interface. Incertain instances, sufficient separation force can be provided as amanual force, a force applied by a hand tool (e.g., pliers), or acombination thereof.

Controlling porosity of the one or more predetermined portions caninclude, for example, changing velocity of the liquid metal dropletsejected from the discharge region of the fluid chamber. As an example,an interface can be formed by ejecting the liquid metal from thedischarge orifice at a lower velocity than a velocity associated withformation of one or both of the support structure and the part. Ingeneral, the liquid metal ejected at the lower velocity will notpenetrate the target material as completely as the liquid metal ejectedat a higher velocity. Such limited penetration can result in increasedporosity which can be advantageous in the context of forming aninterface useful for separating a part from a support structure oranother part.

In general, the velocity of droplets of the liquid metal ejected fromthe discharge region of the fluid chamber is a function of the magnitudeand the duration of the pulse used to form the respective droplet.Accordingly, controlling porosity can include changing at least one ofthe magnitude and the duration of the pulses along the interface. Forexample, as compared to the magnitude of the pulses used to form theobject away from the interface, the interface can be formed by liquidmetal droplets ejected using pulses of lower magnitude impulse. Thevelocity of the liquid metal ejected from the discharge region can becontrolled, for example, by changing one or more of magnitude andduration of the pulse.

Additionally, or alternatively, controlling porosity of the one or morepredetermined portions can include changing temperature of the liquidmetal ejected from the discharge region. For example, liquid metaldroplets ejected at lower temperature can solidify on a target surfacemore readily than liquid metal droplets ejected at higher temperaturescan solidify on the target surface. Thus, liquid metal droplets ejectedat lower temperature tend to spread less on the target surface and,thus, can form a region of increased porosity. Accordingly, in certainimplementations, controlling porosity of the one or more predeterminedportions can include reducing the temperature of the liquid metal in thefluid chamber.

FIG. 6 is a flowchart of an exemplary method 600 of using MHD force topull back a meniscus of quiescent liquid metal in a fluid chamber. Itshould be appreciated that the exemplary method 600 can be implementedusing any one or more of the various three-dimensional printersdescribed herein and can be implemented in addition to or instead of anyone or more of the other methods described herein, unless otherwisestated or made clear from the context.

As shown in step 610, the exemplary method 600 can include providing aliquid metal in a fluid chamber. The fluid chamber can be, for example,any one or more of the fluid chambers described herein and, therefore,can be defined by any one or more of the housings described herein andcan have an inlet region and a discharge region.

As shown in step 620, the exemplary method 600 can include directing amagnetic field through the housing. The magnetic field can be directedinto the housing by any one or more of the magnets described herein.

As shown in step 630, the exemplary method 600 can include delivering afirst electric current into the liquid metal in the housing in aquiescent state. As used herein, a quiescent state of the liquid metalin the housing can include a state of the liquid metal between ejectionof the liquid metal from a discharge portion of the housing and, thus,can include a state of the liquid metal in which a meniscus is attachedto the discharge portion of the housing (e.g., attached to the dischargeportion within a throat of the discharge portion or attached to adischarge orifice of the discharge portion and extending slightlyoutside of the housing).

The first electric current can be directed in a direction to intersectthe magnetic field in the liquid metal in a direction creating an MHDforce that exerts a pullback force on the liquid metal. For example, inimplementations in which the magnetic field is constant, the firstelectric current can have a polarity opposite a polarity that producesan ejection force on the liquid metal. Because the interaction of theelectric current and the magnetic field obeys the right-hand rule, itshould be appreciated that directing the first electric current in adirection opposite a polarity associated with an ejection force willproduce an MHD force that is substantially opposite the ejection forceand, therefore, can pull back the liquid metal.

The amount of pullback force exerted on the liquid metal is a functionof the magnitude of the first electric current. Typically, the pullbackforce is sufficient to overcome a pressure head of the quiescent liquidmetal in the fluid chamber to move the meniscus, without otherwisesignificantly moving the liquid metal. Thus, in general, the pullbackforce is significantly less than the force required to eject the liquidmetal. Accordingly, the magnitude of the first electric circuit isgenerally small relative to the magnitude of an electric current used toeject the liquid metal from the discharge region. For example, the firstelectric current can have a magnitude of greater than about 1 amp andless than about 100 amps (e.g., about 2 amps to about 20 amps).

FIGS. 7A and 7B is a series of schematic representations comparing aposition of a meniscus 702 of a quiescent liquid metal 704 of a nozzle706 as a pullback force P is applied to the meniscus 702. It should beunderstood that the pullback force P can be, for example, a pullbackforce generated by the first electric current in step 630 in FIG. 6.

As shown in FIG. 7A, in the absence of a pullback force, the meniscus702 can be pushed out of a discharge portion 708 of the of the nozzle706. The meniscus 702 can extend out of the discharge portion 708 by thepressure created by the weight of the quiescent liquid metal 704 abovethe meniscus. Without the application of a pullback force, some of theliquid metal 704 can, under certain conditions, migrate out of thenozzle 706 and onto the bottom surface 710 of the nozzle 706. Suchmigration can interfere with the subsequent ejection of droplets of theliquid metal 704 (e.g., by forming droplets larger in size thanintended). Accordingly, it should be appreciated that reducing thelikelihood of migration of the quiescent liquid metal 704 onto thebottom surface 710 can usefully improve accuracy of the droplets thatcan be delivered from the nozzle 706.

As shown in FIG. 7B, the pullback force P can push the meniscus 702 in adirection away from the bottom surface 710. Accordingly, the pullbackforce P can reduce the likelihood that the meniscus 702 will migrateonto the bottom surface 710. In fact, if some of the liquid metal 704does accumulate on the bottom surface 710 (e.g., from an errantdroplet), the negative pressure established by the pullback force P cansuck the liquid metal 704 from the bottom surface 710 into the dischargeportion 708 of the nozzle 706.

For example, the discharge portion 708 can include a throat 712 and adischarge orifice 712. The pullback force P can be sufficient tomaintain the meniscus 702 of the liquid metal, in a quiescent state,attached to the discharge portion 708 of the nozzle 706. In certainimplementations, the pullback force P can pull the meniscus 702 into thethroat 712 of the discharge portion 712. Additionally, or alternatively,the pullback force P can maintain the meniscus 702 attached to thedischarge orifice 712.

Referring again to FIG. 6, as shown in step 640, the method 600 caninclude selectively delivering a second electric current into the liquidmetal. The second electric current can intersect the magnetic field inthe liquid metal to exert a firing force on the liquid metal to ejectthe liquid metal from the discharge region. Thus, for example, thesecond electric current can be selectively delivered into the liquidmetal as the discharge region of the nozzle is moved along a controlledpattern (e.g., a controlled three-dimensional pattern). For example, thesecond electric current can be selectively delivered into the liquidcurrent along less than the entirety of the controlled pattern such thatthe second electric current is periodically interrupted as the dischargeregion is moved along the controlled pattern. More generally, the secondelectric current can be directed into the liquid metal according to anyone or more of the various different methods described herein.Accordingly, the second electric current can be variable based at leastin upon a position of the discharge orifice along the controlledpattern. Additionally, or alternatively, the second electric current caninclude a pulsed electric current, a direct electric current, or acombination thereof. In instances in which the second electric currentincludes a pulsed electric current, delivering the second electriccurrent into the liquid metal in the feed path can include conducting afiring pulse into the liquid metal in the feed path and conducting apullback pulse into the liquid metal in the feed path (e.g., before thefiring pulse, after the firing pulse, or both) according to any one ormore of the various different methods described herein.

The second electric current can be selectively delivered into the liquidmetal between electrodes defining a firing chamber within the fluidchamber between the inlet region and the discharge region, according toany one or more of the various different methods described herein. Incertain instances, delivering the first electric current can be directedinto the liquid metal between the electrodes. Thus, more generally, thefirst electric current and the second electric current can be deliveredinto the liquid metal along the same path.

In certain implementations, the first electric current can becontinuously applied to the liquid metal and the second electric currentcan be superimposed on the first electric current. Since the magnitudeof the second electric current is larger than the first electriccurrent, the desired ejection of the liquid metal occurs. Because thefirst electric current is continuously applied, the meniscus will bepulled back (e.g., as shown in FIG. 7B) between pulses of the secondelectric current. While the first electric current has been described asbeing continuously applied to the liquid metal, it should be appreciatedthat, in certain implementations, the first electric current can beturned off during an ejection pulse of the second electric current andthe turned back on immediately after the ejection pulse of the secondelectric current.

FIG. 8 is a flowchart of an exemplary method 800 of using MHD force tobounce a meniscus of a quiescent liquid metal in a discharge region of anozzle. It should be appreciated that the exemplary method 800 can beimplemented using any one or more of the various three-dimensionalprinters described herein and can be implemented in addition to orinstead of any one or more of the other methods described herein, unlessotherwise stated or made clear from the context.

As shown in step 810, the method 800 can include providing a liquidmetal in a fluid chamber. The fluid chamber can be any one or more ofthe fluid chambers described herein and, therefore, can be at leastpartially defined by a housing and can have an inlet region and adischarge region.

As shown in step 820, the method 800 can include directing a magneticfield through the housing. The magnetic field can be directed throughthe housing using, for example, any one or more of the magnets describedherein.

As shown in step 830, the method 800 can include delivering a firstelectric current into the liquid metal in a firing chamber within thefluid chamber and between the inlet region and the discharge region. Ingeneral, the first electric current can include a fluctuating electriccurrent intersecting the magnetic field in the liquid metal to exert apulsating force on a meniscus attached to the discharge region. As usedherein, a fluctuating electric current shall be understood to include asubstantially sinusoidal electric current, a pulsed electric current, orcombinations thereof. In response to the pulsating force on themeniscus, the meniscus can bounce—that is, to cause the meniscus todeflect and then relax alternately. For example, the discharge regioncan include a discharge orifice and a throat, and the meniscus can beattached to one or more of the throat and the discharge orifice and, inthis position, the meniscus can undergo alternate deflections inresponse to the first electric current.

Liquid metals can build up a skin of metal oxide by reaction with eventrace levels of oxygen and sometimes water vapor present in theatmosphere. These metal oxides tend to be strong and, once thick enough,can interfere with ejection as desired (e.g., preventing ejection fromtaking place). However, these oxide skins are also quite brittle.Accordingly, the bouncing movement of the meniscus in response to thefirst electric current can facilitate keeping the surface of the liquidmetal in the meniscus flexible (e.g., by introducing cracks in the film)and, thus, reducing the likelihood that the presence of a film willdisable ejection of a droplet on demand.

The first electric current can be delivered over a wide range offrequencies (e.g., a range of frequencies over which the meniscus canrespond). In certain implementations, the oscillations produced by thefirst electric current can be kept below the first resonant frequency ofthe liquid metal in the fluid chamber such that adequate control overthe pulsation can be maintained. However, in implementations in which itis desirable to use a small current to excite oscillations in themeniscus, the first electric current can be deliverable provided at ornear the resonance frequency of the liquid metal in the fluid chamber.In typical applications, the amplitude of oscillation can be greaterthan about 1 percent and less than about 50 percent (e.g., greater thanabout 5 percent and less than about 25 percent) of the diameter of adischarge orifice of the fluid chamber.

In some instances, the method 800 can further include ejecting theliquid metal through the discharge region to clear the meniscus from thedischarge region. Such ejection of the liquid metal through thedischarge region can be done, for example, away from the part. Ingeneral, it should be appreciated that such ejection of the liquid metalthrough the discharge region can be useful for refreshing the meniscus,particularly if the meniscus has been in the discharge region for a longperiod of time. In certain instances, the liquid metal can be ejectedfrom the discharge region for a predetermined period of time.

As shown in step 840, the method 800 can further include delivering asecond electric current into the liquid metal in the firing. The secondliquid metal can intersect the magnetic field in the liquid metal toeject the liquid metal through the discharge region to form an object.It should be understood the second electric current can include a pulsedelectric current different from (e.g., much greater than) the pulsedelectric current of the first electric current. Because the secondelectric current is delivered to eject the liquid metal to form anobject, it should be further understood that the second electric currentcan be delivered into the liquid metal based on a position of thedischarge region along a controlled pattern (e.g., a three-dimensionalpattern) according to any one or more of the various different methodsdescribed herein. Thus, by way of example and not limitation, deliveringthe second electric current into the liquid metal in the firing chambercan include switching between a pulsed electric current a directelectric current based at least in part on a position of the dischargeorifice along the controlled pattern.

The first electric current can be stopped a short period before deliveryof the second electric current. During this short period, theoscillations induced in the meniscus by the first electric current candecay prior to ejection of a first droplet ejected in response to thesecond electric current. Thus, more generally, stopping the firstelectric current shortly before delivery of the second electric currentcan reduce the likelihood that the first electric current can interferewith the first ejection of the liquid metal or with subsequent ejectionsof the liquid metal during the fabrication of an object. In addition, orin the alternative, the first electric current can be delivered to themeniscus during periods in which a printhead associated with the fluidchamber is not actively printing (e.g., while the printhead is movingbetween aspects of the object being fabricated or while the printhead iswaiting for a new layer to commence).

While certain implementations have been described, other implementationsare additionally, or alternatively, possible.

For example, while devices, systems, and methods related to certainaspects of removing debris from inlet regions have been described, otherdevices, systems, and methods of debris removal are additionally oralternatively possible. For example, as shown in FIG. 9, a nozzle 900can include a housing 902 defining at least a portion of a fluid chamber904 having an inlet region 906 and a discharge region 908. The nozzle900 can include a filter 910 disposed along the fluid chamber 904. Ingeneral, the filter 910 can act as a filter of last resort, reducing thelikelihood the debris will reach the discharge region 908 and be ejectedduring manufacturing of an object. Thus, the filter 910 can be spacedapart from the discharge region 904. As an example, the filter 910 canbe disposed along the inlet region 906. In general, the filter 910 caninclude a porous structure formed of a material that can withstand thetemperature of a molten metal in contact with the filter 910. In certainimplementations, the filter 910 can advantageously decrease resonancevibrations fluid chamber 904 as compared to the same fluid chamberwithout a filter, for example, by absorbing the energy in an acousticpulse moving in the fluid chamber 904.

Referring now to FIG. 10, a nozzle 1000 can include a housing 1002defining at least a portion of a fluid chamber 1004 having an inletregion 1006 and a discharge region 1008. Along the inlet region 1006,the housing 1002 can include a chimney 1010 extending from the housing1002 in a direction away from the fluid chamber 1004. The chimney 1010can, for example, reduce the likelihood that a meniscus of liquid metalalong the inlet region 1006 will wet an outer surface of the housingdefining the inlet region 1006. Thus, for example, by reducing wettingalong the housing 1002, the chimney 1008 can reduce the likelihood ofdamage to components carried on the housing 1002, such as a heater 1012.

As another example, while nozzles have been described as includingliquid-cooled magnets, other implementations are additionally oralternatively possible. For example, referring now to FIG. 11, a nozzle1100 can include one or more magnets 1102, a heat sink 1104, and a fan1106. The fan 1106 can be positioned to direct air over heat sink 1004to carry heat away from the one or more magnets 1102 through forced airconvection.

As still another example, while nozzles have been described as includingmetal electrodes defining a fluid chamber and carried in a ceramichousing, other implementations are additionally or alternativelypossible. For example, referring now to FIG. 12, a nozzle 1200 caninclude electrodes 1202 integrally formed with a portion of a housing1204 defining at least one portion of a fluid chamber 1206 (e.g. aportion of a fluid chamber away from a discharge orifice 1208). Thefluid chamber 1206 can have an inlet region 1210 and a discharge region1212. The portion of the housing integrally formed with the electrodes1202 should be understood to be a metal material.

As used herein, “integral” includes components formed of a unitary pieceof material such as a solid block or rod of material and, thus, formedof the same type of material. For example, the housing electrodes 1202and the housing 1204 can be integrally formed from a rod (e.g., a rod ofa ubiquitously available standard size) such that electric current canbe directed in an axial direction along the rod and a magnetic field canbe directed radially through the rod. In general, the fluid chamber 1206can be formed by removing material (e.g., drilling a thru-hole) from theintegrally formed electrodes 1202 and housing 1204. Integrally formingthe electrodes 1202 and the housing 1204 can be advantageous, forexample, for producing the nozzle 1200 with a low thermal mass, whichcan be useful for accurately controlling temperature of liquid metal inthe fluid chamber 1206. Additionally, or alternatively, integrallyforming the electrodes 1202 and the housing 1204 can be useful forpositioning one or more magnets close to the liquid metal in the fluidchamber 1206 such that the strength of the magnetic field in the feedpath is sufficiently strong for creating MHD forces to eject a liquidmetal from the discharge orifice 1214. Further, or instead, integrallyforming the electrodes 1202 and the housing 1204 can reduce the numberof interfaces between different materials, which can be difficult athigh temperatures associated with the ejection of certain types ofliquid metals.

Because the electrodes 1202 and a portion of the housing 1204 areintegrally formed, a firing chamber 1218 formed by the electrodes 1202can be substantially adjacent to the discharge region 1212 and, inparticular, substantially adjacent to the discharge orifice 1214. Asdescribed above, delivering electric current into the fluid chamber 1206at a point substantially adjacent to the discharge region 1212 canfacilitate forming a shorter fluid chamber 1206 which, in turn, canincrease resonance frequency. Thus, integrally forming the electrodes1202 with a portion of the housing 1204 can have certain benefits withrespect to ejecting liquid metal droplets at higher frequencies. Ingeneral, in implementations in which the housing of a nozzle is formedof metal, matching the resistivity between the liquid metal and thehousing can be critical for reducing the likelihood that electriccurrent from the electrodes will flow around the liquid metal in theflow chamber. Thus, in the example of the nozzle 1200, it should beunderstood that the electrical resistivity of the metal of the housing1204 is advantageously substantially matched to the electricalresistivity of the liquid metal in the fluid chamber 1206. Inimplementations in which the electrodes 1202 and a portion of thehousing 1204 are integrally formed, it should be further appreciatedthat the material forming the electrodes 1202 and the housing 1204 has amelting point greater than a melting point of the liquid metal to beejected from the fluid chamber 1206. Thus, for example, inimplementations in which the liquid metal is aluminum or an aluminumalloy, the material forming the electrodes 1202 and the housing 1204 canbe tantalum or niobium, each of which has a melting point higher thanaluminum or aluminum alloys, each of which has an electrical resistivitysubstantially similar to aluminum and its alloys, and each of which isweakly reactive with molten aluminum.

In instances in which at least a portion of the housing 1204 and theelectrodes 1202 are integrally formed from metal, including the case inwhich there is a ceramic insert in the nozzle, the electric current canflow through the metal sidewalls defining the firing chamber 1218, aswell as through the liquid metal flowing within the firing chamber 1218.In such instances, the portion of the current flowing through the metalsidewalls of the housing 1204 does not contribute to creating anMHD-derived pressure for ejection of the liquid metal. Accordingly, incertain implementations, it can be advantageous to make the sidewalls ofthe housing 1204 as thin as possible in a direction parallel to themagnetic field moving through the firing chamber 1206 (e.g., a magneticfield formed according to any one or more of the devices, systems, andmethods described herein) to reduce the amount of electric current thatcan flow outside of the firing chamber 1218.

It can be further advantageous to match the electrical resistivity ofthe liquid metal and the portions of the electrodes 1202 and the housing1204 defining the firing chamber matched as closely as possible. In anideal case, in which these electrical resistivities are ideally matched,the electric current will flow uniformly through the firing chamber1218, regardless of the shape of the firing chamber 1218. For example,if the fluid chamber 1206 and the firing chamber 1218 are cylindrical(e.g., as might be useful for facilitating manufacturing of the nozzle1200), the electric current will flow in a direction perpendicular tothe axis of the cylindrical shape. If, however, the electricalresistivity of the material of the electrodes 1202 and the housing 1204defining the fluid chamber 1206 and the firing chamber 1218 is higherthan the electrical resistivity of the liquid metal, the electriccurrent will tend to crowd toward the center of the firing chamber 1218as the electric current traverses the firing chamber 1218, which canreduce the effectiveness of MHD for ejecting the liquid metal byallowing for some of the energy to be dissipated as fluid eddies due tothe non-uniform pumping action of the non-uniform current. To reduce thelikelihood of such a reduction in the effectiveness of MHD, thecross-section of the firing chamber 1218 can be rectangular, rather thancircular. Such a rectangular cross-section can be useful for reducingthe impact of any mismatch in electrical resistivity between the liquidmetal and the metal defining the firing chamber 1218 by providing thatat least there is no difference in electrical resistance regardless ofthe path of the electric current between the electrodes 1202 through thefiring chamber 1218.

In certain instances, the material forming electrodes compatible withliquid metal in a given nozzle can be expensive. In addition, orinstead, the use of a combination of materials in the nozzle can beuseful, for example, for making beneficial use of a combination ofmaterial properties (e.g., electrical resistivity, thermal conductivity,chemical reactivity, etc.). Thus, more generally, it can be useful tocombine metals with other types of material in nozzles of the presentdisclosure.

Returning to the example of the nozzle 1200, a portion of the dischargeregion 1212 defining a discharge orifice 1214 can be formed of a ceramicinsert 1216 supported by the housing 1204 along the discharge region1212. The ceramic insert 1216 can be formed of, for example, one or moreof alumina, sapphire, ruby, aluminum nitride, aluminum carbide, siliconnitride, sialons, and boron carbide. The ceramic insert 1216 can beuseful for withstanding wear as the liquid metal is ejected from thenozzle 1200. That is, in certain instances, the material of the ceramicinsert 1216 can with stand wear better than the material defining thefluid chamber 1206, thus providing certain benefits with respect toprolonged use of the nozzle 1200. That is, the material of the housing1204 and/or the electrodes 1202 can be formed of a metal that can besubstantially inert with respect to the liquid metal in the fluidchamber 1206, but may not be inert enough for defining a dischargeorifice because a large volume of liquid metal flowing past a dischargeorifice at a high speed can magnify incomplete inertness of a metal.Accordingly, it the discharge orifice 1214 can be advantageously definedby the ceramic insert 1216. While the discharge orifice 1214 has beendescribed as being defined by the ceramic insert 1216, it should beappreciated that, in certain instances, the ceramic insert 1216 can beomitted and the discharge orifice 1214 can be formed by the metallicmaterial of the housing 1204. Referring now to FIG. 13, a nozzle 1300can include a housing 1302 and a lining 1304 defining at least a portionof a fluid chamber 1306. The housing 1302 can be formed, for example, ofa ceramic material. Examples of ceramic materials useful for forming thehousing 1302 include one or more of titanium nitride, titanium aluminumnitride, titanium carbide, alumina, and titanium carbonitride. The metalmaterial forming the lining 1304 is advantageously a metal compatiblewith a liquid metal to be ejected from the nozzle 1300 and, thus, forexample, can be any of the various different electrode materialsdescribed herein. It should be appreciated that, as compared toelectrodes integrally formed with a housing, the lining 1304 can beformed using less of a given material. Using less of the metal materialcan be particularly advantageous in instances in which the materialforming the lining 1304 is expensive. For example, electrodes 1308 canbe coupled to the lining 1304 to deliver electric current to the lining1304 and, in certain instances, the electrodes 1308 can be formed of aless expensive material than the material forming the lining 1304.

In certain implementations, the electrodes 1304 can be plated onto thematerial of the housing 1302. For example, the electrodes 1304 can beplated along all or a portion of the housing 1302 (e.g., along all or aportion of the fluid chamber 1306). Further, or instead, the electrodes1304 can be applied to the housing 1302 through any one or more metaldeposition techniques known in the art.

Referring now to FIG. 14, a nozzle 1400 can include an electrode section1402 and a housing section 1404. In general, the electrode section 1402and the housing section 1404 can be formed of different materials (e.g.,different metals). As a specific example, the electrode section 1402 canbe formed of a first material satisfying requirements of relativeinertness and thermal stability in contact with a liquid metal to beejected. Depending on the liquid metal to be ejected, the choice of thefirst material satisfying these requirements may be relativelyexpensive. For example, tantalum is suitable for use as the firstmaterial in instances in which the liquid metal is aluminum or analuminum alloy. However, tantalum is expensive, relative to other typesof metals. Thus, more generally, it can be desirable to form theelectrode section 1402 as a small piece of the first material suitablefor contact with the liquid metal and, additionally or alternatively, toform the housing section 1404 as a larger piece (e.g., for supportingancillary components associated with the nozzle 1400, such as acartridge heater 1406). The second material of the housing section 1404can be formed of a material satisfying thermal stability at thetemperature of the liquid metal. However, because the housing section1404 is not in contact with the liquid metal, the materials suitable forthe second material can be less expensive those materials suitable forthe first material. Returning to the example of the first material ofthe electrode section 1402 being formed of tantalum, the second materialof the housing section 1404 can be formed of, for example, copper. Ingeneral, the electrode section 1402 and the housing section 1404 can bejoined to one another through welding and brazing techniques known inthe art.

Referring now to FIG. 15, a nozzle 1500 can include a housing 1502defining at least a portion of a fluid chamber 1504 extending between aninlet region 1506 and a discharge region 1508. Electrodes 1510 define atleast a portion of a firing chamber 1512 within the fluid chamber 1504between the inlet region 1506 and the discharge region 1508. In certaininstances, the nozzle 1500 can be an all-metal construction such thatthe housing 1502 and the electrodes 1510 are formed of metal (e.g., thesame metal, such as part of an integral structure). The discharge region1508 can have a throat 1514 and a discharge orifice 1516 in fluidcommunication with the throat 1514 and the fluid chamber 1504 such that,in use, liquid metal moves from the fluid chamber 1504 through thedischarge orifice 1516, via the throat 1514. The discharge orifice 1516can be defined, for example, by an outer surface 1518 of the housing1502. The throat 1514 can be, for example, substantially cylindrical,and a diameter of the throat 1514 can be substantially equal to thediameter of the discharge orifice 1516.

In use, the discharge orifice 1516 can be wetted with a liquid metaldisposed in the fluid chamber 1504. Such wetting at the dischargeorifice 1516 can improve control over ejection of the liquid metal fromthe discharge orifice. However, in certain instances, wetting thedischarge orifice 1516 in this way can increase the risk of the liquidmetal inadvertently extending beyond the discharge orifice (e.g., alongthe outer surface 1518 of the housing 1502), which itself can interferewith control over ejection of the liquid metal. For example, liquidmetal wetted along the outer surface 1518 of the housing can adhere toliquid metal droplets being ejected from the discharge orifice 1516 and,thus, produce larger droplets than intended. Accordingly, the nozzle1500 can further, or instead, include a film 1520 along the outersurface of the housing 1502 (e.g., along a portion of the outer surfaceof the housing 1502 defining the discharge orifice 1516). The film 1520can be useful, for example, for limiting wetting of the liquid metal todesired surfaces in the discharge region 1516.

The film 1520 can be substantially non-wetting (e.g., having a wettingangle of greater than about 90 degrees) with respect to a liquid metalstably supportable along the firing chamber 1512 at least partiallydefined by the electrodes 1510. As used herein, a liquid metal stablysupportable in the firing chamber 1512 should be understood to include aliquid metal supportable along the firing chamber 1512 without alteringthe electrodes 1510 to a degree resulting in significant degradation inthe delivery of electric current into the firing chamber 1512. By way ofnon-limiting example, in instances in which a molten form of aluminum,an aluminum alloy, or solder is supported in the fluid chamber 1504 forejection through the discharge orifice 1516, the film 1520 can besubstantially non-wetting with respect to the molten form of aluminum,aluminum alloy, or solder and the electrodes 1510 can have a melttemperature greater than a melt temperature of the aluminum, aluminumalloy, or solder and remain substantially chemically inert with respectto the aluminum, aluminum alloy, or solder. Thus, more generally, theselection of a material of the film 1520 can be related to the selectionof a material of the electrodes 1510 at least because each material musthave certain properties in the presence of the liquid metal for properoperation of the nozzle 1400 with respect to ejection of the liquidmetal (e.g., for imparting an MHD force in the firing chamber to ejectthe liquid metal through the discharge orifice 1516 withoutsignificantly wetting the outer surface 1518 of the housing 1502).

In certain implementations, the throat 1514 can be wettable with respectto the liquid metal stably supportable in the firing chamber. Thus, theliquid metal stably supportable in the firing chamber 1504 can have agreater contact angle with the film 1520 than the material of thehousing 1502 defining the throat 1514. As an example, the film caninclude an oxide of at least a component of a material forming theportion of the housing 1502 defining the throat. Thus, for example, ininstances in which the housing is formed of tantalum, the film caninclude tantalum oxide. As another example, in instances in which thehousing is formed of steel, the film can include chromium oxide oroxides of other components of steel.

In use, therefore, the liquid metal can wet the throat 1514 (e.g., aselectric current is pulsed through the firing chamber 1504 according toany one or more of the methods described herein) while the film 1520remains non-wetted. Wetting the throat 1514 can be useful, for example,for accurately jetting droplets of the liquid metal at high speeds. Forexample, wetting the throat 1514 can reduce the likelihood that anenvironmental gas (e.g., air, nitrogen, argon, etc.), which caninterfere with droplet formation, will be present in the throat 1514 asthe liquid metal is driven through the throat 1514 during ejection ofdroplets of the liquid metal. Thus, in general, wetting the throat 1514can facilitate pulsing electric current at higher frequencies, which canfacilitate a more rapid rate of droplet ejection from the nozzle 1400,as compared to a nozzle in which liquid metal is not wetted in thethroat.

The film 1520 can be supported on the outer surface of the housing 1502through any of various different methods. In certain instances, the filmcan be a separate material applied to the outer surface of the housing1502. Additionally, or alternatively, the film 1520 can be integrallyformed with the outer surface 1518 of the housing 1502. Such integralformation of the film 1520 and the housing 1502 can be useful forreducing the likelihood of separation between the film 1520 and thehousing 1502 during operation. Further, or instead, the film 1520 can begrown on the outer surface 1518 of the housing 1502 by oxidizing thematerial of the outer surface 1518 of the housing 1502 (e.g., byoxidizing tantalum or steel). Still further or instead, the film 1520can be deposited on the outer surface 1518 of the housing 1502 thorughchemical vapor deposition (CVD), physical vapor deposition (PVD) andother methods known in the art.

As another example, while temperature gradients have been described asbeing formed in electrodes through various different forms of cooling,other implementations are additionally or alternatively possible. Forexample, referring now to FIG. 16, a nozzle 1600 can include a housing1602 and electrodes 1604. The housing 1602 can define at least a portionof a fluid chamber 1606 having an inlet region 1608 and a dischargeregion 1610. The electrodes 1604 can define at least a portion of afiring chamber 1612 within the fluid chamber 1606. In use, a liquidmetal 1614 is disposed in the fluid chamber 1504. In general, thematerial of the electrodes 1604 in contact with the liquid metal 1614can be formed of the same or substantially the same material and, thus,more specifically, interfaces 1616 between the liquid metal 1614 and theelectrodes 1604 can be a molten form of the material. In general,operation of the nozzle 1600 can be similar to operation of the nozzle102 described above with respect to FIGS. 1 and 2A-D, unless otherwiseindicated or made clear from the context.

The housing 1602 can define neck regions 1618 between respectiveexternal portions 1620 of the electrodes 1604 and the firing chamber1612. In particular, the neck regions 1616 can have a reducedcross-sectional area, as compared to the firing chamber 1612 and each ofthe external portions 1620 of the electrodes 1604. In certain instances,thermal conductivity of the material of the electrodes 1604 can besignificantly higher than that of the material forming the housing 1602(e.g., in instances in which the electrodes 1604 are formed of metal andthe housing 1602 is formed of a ceramic material). In such instances,the reduced cross-sectional area of the electrodes 1604 along the neckregions 1618 of the housing can facilitate establishing a substantialtemperature gradient along each respective electrode 1604. Such asubstantial temperature gradient can be useful, for example, forcontrolling the position of the respective interface 1616 between eachelectrode 1604 and the liquid metal 1614. Additionally, oralternatively, the reduced cross-sectional area of the electrodes 1604can facilitate reducing the opportunity for fluid eddies to form withinthe firing chamber 1612 due to the possibility of non-uniform magneticfield or non-uniform current flow in the area.

Referring now to FIG. 17, a nozzle 1700 can include a housing 1702 andelectrodes 1704. The housing 1702 can define at least a portion of afluid chamber 1706, and the electrodes 1704 can define at least aportion of a firing chamber 1708 within the fluid chamber 1706. Thehousing 1702 can include neck regions 1710 having a reducedcross-sectional area. The reduced cross-sectional area of the neckregions 1710 can extend through the firing chamber 1708. Thecross-sectional area of the housing 1702 can follow the cross-section ofthe electrodes 1704, including, for example, along the neck regions1710. As compared to the nozzle 1600 in FIG. 16, it should beappreciated that the nozzle 1700 can facilitate formation of a fluidchamber 1706 having a shorter length, which can advantageously increaseresonant frequency associated with fluid chamber 1706. Thus, moregenerally, the nozzle 1700 can facilitate forming shorter fluid chambersand, therefore, can facilitate ejection of liquid metal at higherfrequencies without exciting a resonance frequency.

Referring now to FIG. 18, a nozzle 1800 can include a housing 1802 andelectrodes 1804. The housing 1802 can define at least a portion of afluid chamber 1806, and the electrodes 1804 can define at least aportion of a firing chamber 1808 within the fluid chamber 1806. Thehousing 1802 can include neck portions 1810. The respective maximumheights of the electrodes 1804, the neck portions 1810, and the firingchamber 1808 can each differ from one another.

The above systems, devices, methods, processes, and the like may berealized in hardware, software, or any combination of these suitable fora particular application. The hardware may include a general-purposecomputer and/or dedicated computing device. This includes realization inone or more microprocessors, microcontrollers, embeddedmicrocontrollers, programmable digital signal processors or otherprogrammable devices or processing circuitry, along with internal and/orexternal memory. This may also, or instead, include one or moreapplication specific integrated circuits, programmable gate arrays,programmable array logic components, or any other device or devices thatmay be configured to process electronic signals. It will further beappreciated that a realization of the processes or devices describedabove may include computer-executable code created using a structuredprogramming language such as C, an object oriented programming languagesuch as C++, or any other high-level or low-level programming language(including assembly languages, hardware description languages, anddatabase programming languages and technologies) that may be stored,compiled or interpreted to run on one of the above devices, as well asheterogeneous combinations of processors, processor architectures, orcombinations of different hardware and software. In another aspect, themethods may be embodied in systems that perform the steps thereof, andmay be distributed across devices in a number of ways. At the same time,processing may be distributed across devices such as the various systemsdescribed above, or all of the functionality may be integrated into adedicated, standalone device or other hardware. In another aspect, meansfor performing the steps associated with the processes described abovemay include any of the hardware and/or software described above. Allsuch permutations and combinations are intended to fall within the scopeof the present disclosure.

Embodiments disclosed herein may include computer program productscomprising computer-executable code or computer-usable code that, whenexecuting on one or more computing devices, performs any and/or all ofthe steps thereof. The code may be stored in a non-transitory fashion ina computer memory, which may be a memory from which the program executes(such as random access memory associated with a processor), or a storagedevice such as a disk drive, flash memory or any other optical,electromagnetic, magnetic, infrared or other device or combination ofdevices. In another aspect, any of the systems and methods describedabove may be embodied in any suitable transmission or propagation mediumcarrying computer-executable code and/or any inputs or outputs fromsame.

The method steps of the implementations described herein are intended toinclude any suitable method of causing such method steps to beperformed, consistent with the patentability of the following claims,unless a different meaning is expressly provided or otherwise clear fromthe context. So, for example performing the step of X includes anysuitable method for causing another party such as a remote user, aremote processing resource (e.g., a server or cloud computer) or amachine to perform the step of X. Similarly, performing steps X, Y and Zmay include any method of directing or controlling any combination ofsuch other individuals or resources to perform steps X, Y and Z toobtain the benefit of such steps. Thus, method steps of theimplementations described herein are intended to include any suitablemethod of causing one or more other parties or entities to perform thesteps, consistent with the patentability of the following claims, unlessa different meaning is expressly provided or otherwise clear from thecontext. Such parties or entities need not be under the direction orcontrol of any other party or entity, and need not be located within aparticular jurisdiction.

It will be appreciated that the methods and systems described above areset forth by way of example and not of limitation. Numerous variations,additions, omissions, and other modifications will be apparent to one ofordinary skill in the art. Absent an explicit indication to thecontrary, the disclosed steps may be modified, supplemented, omitted,and/or re-ordered without departing from the scope of this disclosure.In addition, the order or presentation of method steps in thedescription and drawings above is not intended to require this order ofperforming the recited steps unless a particular order is expresslyrequired or otherwise clear from the context. Thus, while particularembodiments have been shown and described, it will be apparent to thoseskilled in the art that various changes and modifications in form anddetails may be made therein without departing from the spirit and scopeof this disclosure and are intended to form a part of the invention asdefined by the following claims, which are to be interpreted in thebroadest sense allowable by law.

What is claimed is:
 1. A method of additive manufacturing, the methodcomprising: providing a liquid metal in a fluid chamber at leastpartially defined by a housing, the fluid chamber having an inlet regionand a discharge region; directing a magnetic field through the housing;moving the discharge region in a controlled three-dimensional pattern;and delivering electric current between electrodes at least partiallydefining a firing chamber within the fluid chamber between the inletregion and the discharge region, the electric current intersecting themagnetic field in the liquid metal in the firing chamber to eject theliquid metal from the discharge region; and changing a velocity of theliquid metal ejected from the discharge region therein controllingporosity of one or more predetermined portions of an accumulation of theejected liquid metal on a build plate or on a previously deposited layerof metal.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein controlling porosity of theone or more predetermined portions of the accumulation of the ejectedliquid metal includes forming an interface between a support structureand a three-dimensional object in the accumulation, the supportstructure and the three-dimensional object having lower porosity thanthe interface.
 3. The method of claim 2, wherein the interface, thesupport structure and the three-dimensional object are formed of thesame material.
 4. The method of claim 2, wherein the interface isfrangible relative to the three-dimensional object.
 5. The method ofclaim 4, further comprising separating the three-dimensional object fromthe support structure through application of one or more of acompressive force and a shear force to the interface.
 6. The method ofclaim 1 wherein changing the velocity of the liquid metal ejected fromthe discharge region includes changing a magnitude of the electriccurrent delivered into the liquid metal in the firing chamber.
 7. Themethod of claim 1, wherein delivering electric current into the liquidmetal in the firing chamber includes pulsing the electric current. 8.The method of claim 1, wherein changing the velocity of the liquid metalejected from the discharge region includes changing at least one of amagnitude and a duration of a pulse of the electric current.
 9. A methodof additive manufacturing, the method comprising: providing a liquidmetal in a fluid chamber at least partially defined by a housing, thefluid chamber having an inlet region and a discharge region; directing amagnetic field through the housing; moving the discharge region in acontrolled three-dimensional pattern; and delivering electric currentbetween electrodes at least partially defining a firing chamber withinthe fluid chamber between the inlet region and the discharge region, theelectric current intersecting the magnetic field in the liquid metal inthe firing chamber to eject the liquid metal from the discharge region;and changing a temperature of the liquid metal ejected from thedischarge region therein controlling porosity of one or morepredetermined portions of an accumulation of the ejected liquid metal ona build plate or on a previously deposited layer of metal.
 10. Themethod of claim 9, wherein changing the temperature of the liquid metalejected from the discharge region includes reducing the temperature ofthe ejected liquid metal to increase porosity of a predetermined portionof the accumulation of the ejected liquid metal on the build plate or onthe previously deposited layer of metal.
 11. The method of claim 9,wherein controlling porosity of the one or more predetermined portionsof the accumulation of the ejected liquid metal includes forming aninterface between a support structure and a three-dimensional object inthe accumulation, the support structure and the three-dimensional objecthaving lower porosity than the interface.
 12. The method of claim 11,wherein the interface, the support structure and the three-dimensionalobject are formed of the same material.
 13. The method of claim 11,wherein the interface is frangible relative to the three-dimensionalobject.
 14. The method of claim 13, further comprising separating thethree-dimensional object from the support structure through applicationof one or more of a compressive force and a shear force to theinterface.
 15. The method of claim 9, wherein delivering electriccurrent into the liquid metal in the firing chamber includes pulsing theelectric current.